Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students

Joash Mwandike Kirui; Jotham Dinga; Syprine Oyoo

doi:doi:10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13

Research Article |

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Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students

Joash Mwandike Kirui^*

, Jotham Dinga

, Syprine Oyoo

Published in Psychology and Behavioral Sciences (Volume 14, Issue 5)

Received: 16 September 2025 Accepted: 30 September 2025 Published: 30 October 2025

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Abstract

Background: Mathematics is the foundation of all forms of knowledge. Globally, mathematical ability is the cornerstone of innovation and technology. Despite its importance, poor mathematics achievement continues to be a matter of concern among education stakeholders, as students are forced to enroll in courses with uncertain career prospects and values. Objectives: This study, therefore, sought to investigate gender differences in school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, social belonging, and mathematics achievement among Form Three students in Kajiado County, Kenya. Methods: This study used a correlational research design with a targeted population of all Form Three students enrolled in Kajiado County. A three hundred and ninety (390) secondary school students constituted the sample. The purposive sampling technique was used to select ten (10) schools in the County, the stratified sampling technique was used to select schools from various categories, and simple random sampling was used to select 390 students from the ten schools. The instrument used for data collection was modified from the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire (SACQ) (r=0.85), Implicit Theories of Intelligence Scale (r=0.86), and Psychological Sense of School Membership Scale (r=0.85). Additionally, the participants’ academic records provided data on their mathematics achievements. Gender differences were tested using the Independent Samples t-test. Results: The results showed no statistically significant gender disparities in students' school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, or social belonging. However, gender differences were noted in the study variables’ specific domains, with male students reporting higher academic adjustment, malleable mindsets, and feelings of rejection than female students. Conversely, no significant gender differences were noted in the social, emotional, and institutional adjustment dimensions. The study recommends that school authorities organize educational programs to raise awareness of school adjustment, malleable beliefs, and feelings of belonging in both boys and girls. Conclusion: Overall, gender differences play an important role in school adjustment, academic mindset, and social belonging in relation to students’ mathematics outcomes. Therefore, it is important to focus on different genders when applying interventions aimed at enhancing mathematics achievement among secondary school students.

Published in	Psychology and Behavioral Sciences (Volume 14, Issue 5)
DOI	10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13
Page(s)	164-177
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

School Adjustment, Academic Mindset Beliefs, Social Belonging, Mathematics Achievement, Gender Differences

1. Introduction

Mathematical abilities are the cornerstone of innovation and technology worldwide. Mathematics is a basic subject for studying other academic fields, such as science, technology, and engineering, as well as non-scientific fields, such as accounting, music, and art, which are essential for nurturing creative and innovative experts in a country. A nation requires highly trained and talented experts to drive innovation and development in various fields. Globally, nations striving for economic progress place a premium on mathematics achievements. Chand et al.

[8]

stated that mastery of mathematics is necessary for occupations requiring investigative, logical, critical, and analytical skills. Mathematical literacy is required for anyone seeking to progress in their profession or enter the workforce

[10]

Despite the great value that society places on mathematics, poor mathematical performance in examinations continues to worry education stakeholders. Globally, general disinterest in mathematics has been a persistent problem at all educational levels in both developing and developed countries. According to the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), poor mathematics achievement in grades 4 and 8 in the United States depends on race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic class, in addition to ability and linguistic background level

[21]

. There is also strong evidence of a decline in interest in the subject in Australia, where mathematics is linked to a culturally fixed mindset

[33]

. Maamin et al.

[27]

clarified that a variety of factors, including students, families, instructors, schools, and policymakers, impact mathematics achievement in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

Poor mathematical achievement has been the subject of inquiry in several African nations, particularly in South Africa, Ghana, Tanzania, and Kenya.

[45]

discovered that fifth-grade students in South Africa perform poorly in math. Mabena et al.

[28]

propose that students' negative beliefs toward mathematics may be caused by a lack of enthusiasm for the subject. Studies have revealed that students in Ghana, like those in the majority of other African nations, often voice their dislike of and lack of interest in mathematics during their studies

[4, 2]

. According to certain studies, Tanzanian students' performance in mathematics is adversely affected by their attitude

[32]

. Kenya is not exempt from poor mathematics achievement, which has attracted the attention of education stakeholders and researchers. A report from the Kenya National Examinations Council indicated a grand mean score of less than 35% with the female candidates below 30% (KNEC, 2024)

[25]

. This low achievement in mathematics performance and gender disparities is partly attributed to ineffective school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, and social belonging

[30, 43, 12]

. The persistent poor performance in mathematics and gender disparities is also registered in Kajiado County, indicating that the performance index for females was below 3 points out of 12 points for three consecutive years, as compared to males with above 4 points

[24]

. Researchers have identified several factors associated with poor mathematics achievement, but the current study focused on gender differences in school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, and social belonging.

Adjustment is a fundamental concept for understanding how individuals cope with challenges in school life. School adjustment refers to students’ capacity to sustain their attitudes, actions, and feelings in the face of evolving, novel, or ambiguous academic demands

[11]

. It includes social, emotional, academic, and attachment skills

[5]

. Social adjustment is associated with navigating relationships and social environments

[35]

. In contrast, emotional adjustment refers to emotional states used to regulate feelings in response to different situations. Moreover, academic adjustment refers to the various learning requirements of the classroom, whereas institutional adjustment refers to content with general and specific educational experiences

[5]

. Related research has found links between teacher and student interactions, school adjustment, and academic achievement by gender

[48, 37, 1, 19]

More importantly, academic mindset beliefs are another construct related to mathematics achievement. According to Dweck

[15]

, academic mindset encompasses two primary categories of student mindset beliefs: malleable and fixed. The use of malleable mindsets suggests that intelligence can be developed through knowledge and training, indicating that personal efforts can improve abilities. This belief prioritizes mathematics tasks because they are considered interesting and worthwhile. A fixed mindset is based on the belief that certain individuals are naturally strong in mathematics and science, while others are not. These individuals shy away from challenges that they believe could expose their “permanent” shortcomings, dislike effort, which they believe indicates a lack of ability, and give up more quickly when faced with obstacles because they believe it is a sign of insufficient ability. The negative impact of a fixed attitude on mathematical aptitude is more likely to affect females

[43]

. However, some studies have found that men and women have the same growth mindsets

[39]

. This result is in line with other studies that reported no gender differences in developmental mindset scores

[40]

. This subtly demonstrates that research on gender variations in academic mentality remains inconclusive and requires further investigation.

Furthermore, research has shown that students who believe that they are being accepted, included, and welcomed in a learning environment tend to be confident in themselves, are not afraid of any situations, and approach challenges carefully to come up with workable solutions

[42, 44, 47]

. Research distinguishes between two emotions: feelings of belonging, caring, participation, and support from others, and feelings of rejection, or not belonging to one’s school community

[9]

. Students’ feelings of belonging influence how they acquire skills, make connections with others, solve problems, overcome performance anxiety, and perform better

[3]

. Students with feelings of belonging at school are better equipped to handle loneliness, performance pressure, school stress, and poor academic performance. Research conducted in Kenya has shown that academic achievement is positively correlated with student attitudes, gender, adaptability, academic mindset, feelings of belonging, and teacher credentials

[36, 6, 34]

. Additional research in this field has established a significant relationship between gender, adjustment, belonging, attachment type, and overall academic achievement

[41]

Poor mathematics achievement is often associated with a negative learning environment that promotes gender-stereotyped messages. However, mathematics reforms in Kenya are skewed towards areas that exclude the interaction between gender in relation to school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, and social belonging. Ensuring students’ success in mathematics is a shared responsibility among stakeholders, but much depends on the individual student and, more so, their gender. This implies that individual students need to adjust to school with the mindset of socially belonging on their own to position themselves well for academic excellence. Students use school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, and social belonging to overcome feelings of rejection and reduce the detrimental effects of stress and threats in a stereotyped environment. However, very few studies have explored gender differences in relation to school adjustment (social, emotional, academic, and institutional), academic mindset beliefs (fixed vs. malleable), social belonging (rejection vs. belonging), and their role in students’ mathematics achievement. This gap is what this study aimed to address.

2. Literature

This study attempted to explain the gender differences in school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, social belonging, and mathematics achievement. The literature has identified gender disparities in school adjustment. In China, Yau et al.

[49]

surveyed 265 students from five universities in Hong Kong. This study aimed to ascertain the existence of gender differences in perceptions of the connections between academic, social, and psychological adjustment during the transition phase. The findings of this study suggested that female students believe that they adjust to social situations more successfully than their male counterparts. Nonetheless, female students believe that psychological adjustment is more closely related to academic adjustment than male students. However, the linear regression models could not identify gender differences in the association between students' psychological and social adjustment. Findings regarding adjustment, gender, and residence were replicated in a different study that surveyed 471 students (234 boys and 237 girls) randomly drawn from eight secondary schools in Purulia, India

[38]

. The researchers categorized the students as those living in urban and rural areas. Cumulatively, the findings lead to the conclusion that girls (M = 91.61, SD = 12.81) were better adjusted than boys (M = 87.72, SD = 13.73; t = 3.18, p<.05). However, there was no significant difference in adjustment between urban and rural students. The current study attempted to build on the results obtained in China and India to determine whether the results would be replicated in a different socio-cultural setting.

Kaur and Sharma

[23]

revealed gender differences, with girls reporting better adjustment than boys. This is in contrast to other studies carried out in Africa, which found no significant gender difference in school adjustment, but males scored higher than females on social adjustment, which was the primary driver of the change in relationships. A study in South Africa posits that academic and social adjustment appear to have a positive impact on boys in a competitive university environment; however, the high dropout rates among girls who struggle to adjust are difficult to reverse

[35]

. In their cross-sectional cohort design study on a sample of 221 students in grades 3 and 4 in South Africa (44.34% girls, 55.66% boys), De Waal et al.

[13]

reported gender differences, with more females taking math courses than males.

Some studies conducted in the USA have found no gender differences in students’ mindset beliefs. For example, Macnamara and Rupani

[29]

examined the connection between mindset and IQ in 103 general psychology students (57 of whom were female) at Case Western University in the United States. The mean age was 18.95 years (SD = 1.82). Contrary to popular belief, the study revealed no indication that women had a more fixed attitude than men. The study showed little indication of a "brighter woman effect," which holds that brilliant women have more fixed attitudes than either their less intellectual female counterparts or men. These findings suggest that a woman's fixed thinking increases with her level of intelligence. Additionally, the findings showed that women are more likely to be negatively impacted by a fixed attitude on mathematical aptitude

[43]

. Nonetheless, previous studies have indicated a positive correlation between age and ability. This study is based on the idea that children do not have the idea that intellect is fixed or unchangeable and that adolescence is a time when ideas about intelligence begin to solidify

[14]

Accordingly, a study by Shariff et al.

[39]

, men and women have the same growth mindsets. The study used a total of 143 final-year students from the education faculty of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (25.2% male, 74.8% female; aged 20–29). The study used two instruments: the eight items on the Grit Short Scale and eight items on the Flourishing Scale to measure flourishing. The results demonstrated that flourishing can be predicted by academic attitudes. Furthermore, there were no gender differences in thriving and academic mindset (M = 26.02, SD = 4.43, t =.16, p =.60; M = 25.79, SD = 4.23, t =.16, p =.68 for males and females, respectively). This suggests that university students of both genders share similar flourishing traits and academic attitudes, which may be used to enhance their capacity to pursue success in their lives. In contrast, a related study reported no gender differences in the developmental mindset scores

[40]

. This subtly demonstrates that research on gender variations in academic mentality views remains inconclusive and requires further investigation.

Gender affects perceptions of IQ and feelings of insecurity regarding belonging. For instance, in a correlational study of 1291 STEM university students in Germany (18% female, 82% male), Deiglmayr et al.

[12]

found a substantial difference between the beliefs of male (r=.19; p<.01) and female students (r=.18; p<.01) regarding brilliance and belonging ambiguity. However, female students reported higher levels of brilliance (β=.79; p<.01) and higher levels of belonging uncertainty (β=.79; p<.01). This study shows that belonging uncertainty arises because people believe that success in their field depends on fixed abilities and the actual ability they possess for success. In their study on the relationship between physical performance and physical intellectual attitude, Malespina et al.

[31]

examined 781 students (36% female and 64% male) at the University of Pittsburgh in the United States. However, they reported conflicting results using a mindset survey validated by other researchers

[26]

. The results of the survey research design revealed no gender differences in any aspect of attitude, except for aptitude at the start of the course (X̅ = 3.49, SD = 5.2 for males; X̅ = 3.32, SD =.46 for women, p<.01, d =.37). Although the average GPA of the female participants was greater than that of the male participants, the average course grade for the female participants (X̅ = 2.49, SD = .90) was somewhat lower than that of the male participants (X̅ = 2.76, SD = .98). The study established that female physics students have a low sense of belonging, and such differences arise from negative messages that endorse stereotypes and fixed mindsets.

Related research has focused on the differences between gender stereotypes and mathematics achievement. To investigate the connection between mathematical achievement and gender stereotype threat, Maduagwu et al.

[30]

selected 402 secondary school students from Nigerian public schools (199 males and 203 females). Data were gathered using the Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) and the Gender Stereotype Threat Scale (GSTS). This study found a negative correlation between arithmetic achievement and gender stereotype threat (r = -.28, p<.05). The study also revealed a significant difference between the two groups, with male students (X̅ = 22.2, SD = 5.2) being more at risk from gender stereotypes than female students (X̅ = 17.5, SD = 5.2, p<.01, d =.97). However, male and female students who were not exposed to fear of gender stereotypes did not significantly differ in their achievement. The study also showed that gender matters, with female students showing higher scores in mathematics (X̅ = 41.1, SD = 20.6, p< .01, d = .34) than males (X̅ = 39.5, SD = 17). These data demonstrate a relationship between gender and mathematics, despite their weak association.

The literature includes a number of studies that contradict one another regarding the connection between mathematical proficiency and gender. One set of studies noted differences between males and females, whereas others found no difference in mathematics achievements. In a mixed-methods study of 52 English primary school students (24 girls and 28 boys), Webb-Williams et al.

[46]

discovered that there were notable gender disparities in society and that boys performed worse on the achievement scale than girls. Some studies, such as Igbo et al.

[22]

, have shown that males outperform females in mathematics. In a similar vein, Flore et al.

[17]

studied 2064 students in the Netherlands and revealed that gender significantly predicted performance, with boys outperforming girls. This study demonstrated that rather than a lack of intellectual aptitude, gender preconceptions cause people to lose confidence in women.

Research on how gender affects social affiliation in Kenya is limited, though a cross-sectional study by Winga et al.

[48]

using 390 form-four students (230 boys and 160 girls; mean age = 18.38 years) revealed no appreciable variations in how boys and girls adjusted to school. Overall, boys (M = 15.63, SD = 2.61) reported higher adjustment than girls (M = 15.15, SD = 2.78). The results indicated that the participants were driven and committed to learning when they first started school, but eventually lost interest and gave up on their goals of success. At this point, their sense of belonging, which depends on academic success, diminishes their drive and effort. Furthermore, girls (M = 4.77, SD = 1.02) had lower engagement or sense of belonging than boys (M = 4.78, SD = .99). The literature reviewed indicates that gender differences exist in school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, social belonging, and mathematics achievement. However, several gaps have been identified, including inconsistent results, methodological issues, and contextual factors. Based on these gaps and the scant literature in the Kenyan context, there was a justifiable need to conduct the current study.

3. Methodology

Participants

A total of 390 participants completed the questionnaires, 188 of whom were boys and 202 were girls. Eighty-three (83) questionnaires were excluded because of missing items, items marked more than once, stray markings on item responses, items left blank, or individuals marking off items in only one column (n = 83). The final number of participants retained in the current study was 307, including 165 boys (53.8%) and 142 girls (46.2%); 263 (87.67%) public schools and 44 (12.33%) private schools, 72 (23.5%) boys’ boarding schools, 96 (31.2%) girls’ boarding schools, and 139 (45.3%) coeducational day schools. The percentage return rate was 78.7%. The characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Participants' characteristics.

	School type			Total
	GB	BB	COED	Total
Boys	-	72 (23.5%)	93 (30.3%)	165 (53.8%)
Girls	96 (31.2%)	-	46 (15%)	142 (46.2%)
Total	96 (31.2%)	72 (23.5%)	139 (45.3%)	307 (100%)

Note. N = 307; BB = boys boarding; GB = girls boarding; CO-ED = Co-educational day; ( ) = percentage of total.

Procedures

The questionnaires were distributed to various categories of secondary school students in the County. Self-reported questionnaires were distributed to the participants to complete. They were first informed of the study’s overall goals, sample characteristics, and confidentiality procedures. There was no payment for involvement; all participants completed the questionnaires voluntarily and were assured of their anonymity. They were also informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time. Finally, they were told how to get in touch with them regarding any questions they might have or the results once the study was completed.

This study complied fully with the guidelines set forth by the authors' university Graduate School and the National Commission of Science, Technology, and Innovation (NACOSTI) codes of ethics. In the current study, all participants provided written informed consent to participate in the study. Every participant in the data coding process was assigned a digit between 1 and 390.

Sampling Strategy

Purposive sampling was used to select the county, form three students, and 10 schools. Stratified sampling was used to select schools from various categories: boys’ boarding (2), girls’ boarding (3), and coeducational schools (5). Simple random sampling was used to select 390 participants from the schools.

Materials

Demographics

Participants were asked to respond to two demographic questions (gender and school type).

The School Adjustment Measures

The Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire

[5]

was used to gauge students' degree of school adjustment. The sixty-seven items on this self-reported questionnaire examine school adjustment as a multidimensional construct using four subscales. The social subscale (questions such as “I meet and make as many friends as I would like at school)” asks about participants’ social environment, other people, and nostalgia. One of the questions in the emotional subscale, “I have been feeling nervous recently,” gauges the participant’s psychological and physical state. The academic adjustment subscale assesses participants’ motivation, application, performance, and academic environment (24 items such as “I am not working as I should during my academic work”). The institutional adjustment asks about participants’ relationship with this school (questions such as “I am pleased now with my decision to attend this school, in particular”). Participants rated themselves on a 6-point Likert scale, with 1 denoting "strongly disagree" and 6 denoting "strongly agree." After some items were reverse-coded, the overall alpha coefficient was α = .85. The study's school adjustment individual subscales showed reliability of α= .71 for academic adjustment, α = .70 for social adjustment, α = .70 for emotional adjustment, and α= .70 for institutional adjustment.

Measures of Academic Mindset

Academic mindset was measured in the present study using a modified version of the Implicit Theories of Intelligence Scale, which was first developed by

[15]

. The eight items on the self-reported questionnaire assessed students’ beliefs about intelligence. These elements correspond to two categories: fixed and malleable mindsets, respectively. The four items in the fixed mindset subscale, such as “I have some intelligence, and I am not sure if I can do anything to increase it,” gauge individuals’ conviction to shy away from challenges and give up quickly when faced with obstacles because they believe it is a sign of insufficient ability. Malleable mindsets assess an individual’s belief regarding academic assignments; ability can be taught through effort and experience, irrespective of individual differences in aptitude, passion, or disposition. (Four items, such as “I can improve my intelligence through time and effort”). Participants rated items on a 6-point Likert scale, with 1 denoting "strongly disagree" and 6 denoting "strongly agree." Scores of 8-16 indicate a lower level of academic mindset views, 16.1-32 indicate a moderate level, and 32.1-48 indicate a higher level. The scores range from 8-48 points. Alpha coefficients for the overall academic mindset (α=.86), fixed mindset (α=.70), and malleable mindset (α=.71) were obtained.

Measure of Social Belonging

Social belonging was measured in the present study by employing a modified version of the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) developed by Goodenow (1993)

[16]

. The 18 items on the self-reported questionnaire assess five elements: the school subscale (five items), the other people subscale (three items), the students' subscale (two items), the teachers' subscale (four items), and the self-subscale (four items). In the current study, the five subscales were condensed into two: the feelings of rejection subscale and the feelings of belonging subscale, by obtaining the average score of the two subscales

[16]

. The 13 items in the feelings of rejection subscale, such as “It is difficult for people like me to be accepted at my school,” gauge an individual’s level of personal relationships, including acceptance, inclusion, and welcome. Feelings of rejection assess an individual’s degree of rejection, exclusion, or being ignored. Participants rated themselves on a 6-point Likert scale, with 1 denoting "not at all true" and 6 denoting "completely true." After reverse coding the negative questions, social belonging was calculated by adding all the responses; for low, moderate, and high social belonging, the ranges were 18-36, 36.1-72, and 72.1-108, respectively.

Measure of Mathematics Achievement

Mathematics achievement was measured with one question requiring participants to complete a pro forma table embedded in the questionnaire regarding grades for the 2024 midterm and end-of-first-term exams. The Statistics Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to enter and calculate the mean score and total number of marks in mathematics. To guarantee a fair comparison across the ten sampled schools for the study, these scores were first converted into standard Z-scores and then into T-scores using SPSS

[7]

Statistical Analysis

This study aimed to determine whether students' school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, social belonging, and mathematical achievement differed significantly by gender. To accomplish this goal, the following null hypothesis was proposed:

H₀₁: There are no significant gender differences in school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, social belonging, and mathematics achievement. To test this hypothesis, the following four supplementary hypotheses were proposed:

H_o1. 1: Gender differences in school adjustment are not statistically significant.

H_o1. 2: Gender differences in academic mindset beliefs are not statistically significant.

H_o1. 3: Gender differences in social belonging are not statistically significant.

H_o1. 4: Gender differences in mathematics achievement are not statistically significant.

Statistical Test: Independent sample t-test.

4. Results

Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, and Social Belonging

Descriptive Results

Table 2. Mean Differences in School Adjustment Levels.

Variable	Gender
	Male		Female
	M	SD	M	SD
Academic Adjustment (AA)	81.86	13.63	79.79	15.98
Social Adjustment (SA)	61.41	9.75	59.02	9.44
Emotional Adjustment (EA)	71.25	20.18	63.11	21.39
Institutional Adjustment (IA)	38.23	10.69	33.38	11.65

Note. N = 307. M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation

The results in Table 2 show that there was a substantial gender difference in the participants' mean scores in the academic, social, emotional, and institutional adjustment categories. Male school adjustment scores were higher than female school adjustment scores. These results suggest that males might be more engaged in adaptive behaviors and more connected to their school adjustment goals than females.

The participants’ mean scores were relatively above average for the emotional and institutional adjustment domains compared to their academic and social adjustment domains. This result suggests poor social and academic adjustments. This outcome could be explained by the high rates of illiteracy, poverty, and low socioeconomic status in the study area, as well as the high rate of maternal and paternal deprivation of students' academic needs, which is brought on by the country's dire socioeconomic conditions. To meet these obligations, students are tempted to engage in antisocial conduct due to their financial inability, which may have a favorable or negative impact on their performance in mathematics. Students sometimes suffer from psychological anguish when combined with additional elements such as bullying or taunting, which can cause them to avoid school attendance. This leads to more frequent absences and, consequently, fewer opportunities for students to acquire academic abilities in the classroom

[18]

. The researcher conducted a descriptive analysis, and the results are presented in Table 3 below.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of Academic Mindset Domains and Gender.

		Fixed Mindset			Malleable Mindset
		M	SD	Sk	M	SD	Sk
Gender	Male	11.24	3.74	.07	18.08	2.83	-1.01
Gender	Female	11.36	4.35	.68	16.63	4.29	-1.40

Note. N = 307; BB = boys boarding; GB = girls boarding; CO-ED = co-educational day; M = mean; SD = standard deviation; Sk = skewness.

The mean and standard deviation of the Academic Mindset Beliefs Scale were calculated for each participant. According to Table 3, males reported more malleable mindset beliefs (M = 18.08, SD = 2.83) than females, who had somewhat lower mean scores (M = 16.63, SD = 4.29) than males. One reason for this could be that female students face the detrimental impacts of stress and dangers from a stereotypical environment that says that mathematics is not for girls. When combined with additional stressors such as poverty, domestic duties, and lack of time to complete schoolwork, they tend to adopt a fixed mindset regarding mathematics. Therefore, all students need to strengthen their malleable mindsets.

The mean scores for fixed mindset beliefs did not differ significantly by gender. This result suggests that students' gender had neither a positive nor a negative impact on their established academic mindset. Although the data in Table 3 indicate that more students had a malleable mindset, it is impossible to overlook the sizeable portion of students who agreed with fixed mindset beliefs in mathematics. This suggests that some students believe that mathematics relies on unchangeable, fixed abilities. Students with a fixed mindset are more prone to give up, especially when faced with challenges, and are readily intimidated by others’ performance. The mean and standard deviation of the participants' scores on the Academic Mindset Beliefs Scale were determined, and the results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Mean Differences in Social Belonging Levels.

Variable	Gender
	Male		Female
	M	SD	M	SD
Feelings of Rejection (FOR)	22.09	4.12	21.96	3.67
Feelings of Belonging (FOB)	63.20	13.88	71.91	8.49

Note. N = 307. M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation

According to Table 4, female students appeared to feel more like members of the school community (M = 71.91, SD = 8.49) than male students (M = 63.20, SD = 13.88) did. Interestingly, males felt slightly more rejected. This suggests that psychosocial variables may have caused this discrepancy. The mean and standard deviation were determined by analyzing the participants' mathematics achievement, and the results are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Descriptive Statistics of Mathematics Achievement Scores by Gender.

	Gender	N	M	SD
T-Scores	Male	165	52.21	9.06
T-Scores	Female	142	48.09	10.39

Note. N = 307. M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; T-Scores = Mathematics

Based on the results in Table 5, males scored higher in mathematics (M = 52.21, SD = 9.06) than females. This suggests that boys outperform girls in mathematics.

Hypothesis Testing

An Independent Samples t-test comparing the mean gender differences in school adjustment was conducted to assess the first additional hypothesis. The results are presented in Table 6.

Table 6. An Independent Sample T-test for School Adjustment Scores by Gender.

		t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
School Adjustment	Equal variances assumed	2.50	305	.01
School Adjustment	Equal variances not assumed	2.47	281.99	.01

Note. N = 307. T-Scores = Mathematics.

The data in Table 6 indicate that there were no significant gender differences in overall school adjustment (t (305) = 2.50, p<.05). Consequently, the first supplemental null hypothesis was rejected. This implied that although more boys than girls rated themselves higher on the school adjustment scale, both boys and girls had to adjust to school. This supports the results that boys outperformed girls in terms of total school adjustment ratings. The researcher then concentrated on determining whether the various subdomains of students' school adjustment differed significantly by gender, as shown in Table 7.

Table 7. An Independent Samples T-test for the School Adjustment Domains.

Variable		t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Academic Adjustment	Equal variances assumed	1.22	305	.22
Academic Adjustment	Equal variances not assumed	1.21	278.83	.22
Social Adjustment	Equal variances assumed	2.17	305	.03
Social Adjustment	Equal variances not assumed	2.17	300.78	.03
Emotional Adjustment	Equal variances assumed	3.43	305	.01
Emotional Adjustment	Equal variances not assumed	3.41	292.28	.01
Institutional Attachment	Equal variances assumed	3.80	305	.01
Institutional Attachment	Equal variances not assumed	3.78	288.95	.01

Note. N = 307. df = degrees of freedom.

As can be seen in Table 7, social adjustment (t (307) = 1.47, p<.05), emotional adjustment (t (307) = 3.43, p<.05), and institutional adjustment (t (307) = 3.80, p<.05) did not substantially differ between male and female students. This meant that, although more boys rated social, emotional, and institutional adjustment highly, their mean differences were not significant. Boys and girls who adjust to school form good relationships with others in school, leading to almost the same performance. Nonetheless, gender variations in academic adjustment were statistically significant (t (305) = 1.22, p =.22). Boys rated their academic adjustment higher than girls, indicating that focusing on this area could help students perform better in academics. A t-test comparing the mean gender differences in academic mindset beliefs was conducted to test the second supplementary hypothesis. The results are presented in Table 8.

Table 8. An Independent Sample T-test for Academic Mindset Beliefs Scores by Gender.

		t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Academic Mindset Beliefs	Equal variances assumed	2.59	305	.01
Academic Mindset Beliefs	Equal variances not assumed	2.58	291.105	.01

Note. N = 307. df = degrees of freedom.

According to the results in Table 8, there were no significant gender differences in views of academic mentality (t (305) = 2.59, P<.05). This led to the rejection of the second supplemental null hypothesis. Therefore, there were no significant gender variations in the students’ academic mindset beliefs. This validated the results, which indicated that although the mean scores differed, the scores of boys and girls were almost the same. This implies that even girls with fixed mindsets might perform as well as those with malleable ones. The researcher then determined whether the distinct subdomains of students' academic mindset beliefs differed significantly by gender, and the results are presented in Table 9.

Table 9. An Independent Samples T-test of Students’ Academic Mindset Beliefs Sub-Domains.

		t	df	Sig.(2-tailed)
Fixed Mindset	Equal variances assumed	2.18	305	.06
Fixed Mindset	Equal variances not assumed	2.15	294.55	.06
Malleable Mindset	Equal variances assumed	2.74	305	.01
Malleable Mindset	Equal variances not assumed	2.74	298.50	.01

Note. N = 307. df = degrees of freedom.

Gender differences in fixed mindset beliefs were statistically significant (t (307) = 2.18, p =.06), as presented in Table 9. This indicates that girls give up readily, especially when they are unable to complete a task, since more girls than boys support fixed beliefs. The belief in a malleable mindset, however, did not differ significantly between male and female students (t (307) = 2.74, p<.05). This showed that although more boys than girls had higher scores on the malleable mindset scale, the mean difference between the two groups was not statistically significant. The third supplementary hypothesis determined the gender differences in students' social belonging, and the results are displayed in Table 10.

Table 10. An Independent Sample T-test for Social Belonging Scores by Gender.

		t	Df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Social Belonging	Equal variances assumed	4.36	305	.00
Social Belonging	Equal variances not assumed	4.41	304.98	.00

Note. df = degrees of freedom.

Social affiliation did not differ significantly by gender, according to the data in Table 10 (t (307) = 4.36, p<.05). Consequently, the third supplemental null hypothesis is rejected. The results showed that students' social belonging did not vary significantly by gender. This corroborates the findings, which indicated that while girls outperformed boys on the social belonging measure, their mean scores did not differ significantly. The researcher then focused on identifying gender-based differences in the various subdomains of students' social belonging, and the results are displayed in Table 11 below.

Table 11. An Independent Samples T-test of Social Belonging Subdomains.

		t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Feelings of Rejection (FOR)	Equal variances assumed	.27	305	.78
Feelings of Rejection (FOR)	Equal variances not assumed	.27	285.28	.78
Feelings of Belonging (FOB)	Equal variances assumed	6.51	305	.00
Feelings of Belonging (FOB)	Equal variances not assumed	6.73	276.82	.00

Note. N = 307. df = degrees of freedom; M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation.

According to Table 11, feelings of rejection differed significantly by gender (t (307) =.27, p =.78). This means that more boys than girls felt rejected, implying that boys were exposed to more negative school environments than girls. Conversely, no gender-based differences in feelings of belonging were found between boys and girls (t (307) = 6.51, p<.05).

This shows that the mean differences between the two groups were not statistically significant, despite girls outperforming boys in terms of their feelings of belonging. The performances of boys and girls who appreciated the learning environment and interaction with their classmates were nearly identical.

The fourth supplemental hypothesis was tested, and the results are presented in Table 12.

Table 12. An Independent Sample T-Test for Mathematics Achievement Scores by Gender.

		t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
T-Scores	Equal variances assumed	1.68	305	.06
T-Scores	Equal variances not assumed	1.68	294.24	.06

Note. T-scores = Mathematics.

Gender disparities in mathematics achievement were significant according to the data in Table 12 (t (305) = 1.68, p =.06). This led to the acceptance of the fourth supplemental null hypothesis. The results indicate significant differences between genders in students’ mathematical achievement. This confirmed that boys outperformed girls in terms of overall mathematics achievement.

5. Discussion of Results

This study focused on gender differences in school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, social belonging, and mathematics achievement among secondary school students. The findings demonstrate the importance of specific gender differences in academic mindsets, beliefs, social belonging abilities, and school adjustment with regard to mathematical ability.

Regarding school adjustment, the overall results showed that boys emerged as the most school-adjusted. Higher levels of school adjustment were associated with improved mathematics achievement, with boys outperforming girls in terms of overall mathematics achievement. This might imply that girls encounter more school adjustment challenges than boys. In the current study, the fact that girls lag in school adjustment could be attributed to societal ways of raising girls in an enclosed environment. This is because they are normally treated as vulnerable; therefore, when they join high school, they might take time to experience their freedom and to adapt to a new situation. Moreover, boys outscored girls in terms of social, emotional, and institutional adjustment; however, there was no discernible difference between male and female students. Given that the results for both genders were nearly the same, it was inferred that social, emotional, and institutional integration was difficult for both boys and girls to achieve. However, in terms of academic adjustment, there were significant differences between male and female students, with boys outperforming girls academically. Other studies have also found that males are more optimistic about their mathematical abilities

[35]

. In contrast, Yau et al.

[49]

discovered that girls were more likely than boys to perceive social adjustment as having a greater influence. Furthermore, female students believed that psychological adjustment had a greater impact on academic adjustment than male students. For both boys and girls, the study found no gender differences in the relationship between social and psychological adjustment. This implies that although male students are generally better at handling their emotions, female students are also shown to be more capable of emotional adjustment.

The current results also support those of Hobbs

[20]

, who revealed differences between students' and teachers’ expectations of their adjustment, as students often base their goals on what their teachers think they should achieve. Hobb’s study clearly shows that students have less self-respect and are unable to change when there are more expectation gaps between themselves and their teachers. Numerous studies have found that teacher expectations vary according to socioeconomic status, gender, and race. For instance, studies have shown that teachers often have lower expectations of girls than boys

[20]

. Because of this discrepancy, students may conform to these expectations and subsequently perform worse academically, producing self-fulfilling prophecies. As was the case with most schools in the current study location, students were exposed to teachers with inappropriate expectations. Therefore, more support resources are needed to provide a fair learning environment.

There were no discernible gender variations in mindset beliefs. Many studies conducted in other geographical regions have also revealed similar results

[33, 41, 31]

. The study was predicated on the hypothesis that adolescence is the time when conceptions of intelligence start to solidify, and that children do not come into the world with the belief that intelligence is permanent or unalterable. In other words, boys outperformed girls in this regard. However, gender variations in the malleable mindset were not statistically significant. That is, girls who endorsed a malleable mindset performed almost the same as boys, despite differences in mean scores.

Additionally, there were no discernible gender differences in social membership according to the findings of the current study. However, rejection sentiments differed by gender, with boys experiencing more rejection than girls. This suggests that boys were exposed to more unfavorable school situations than girls, since more boys than girls felt rejected. Boys and girls, on the other hand, did not differ in their sense of belonging depending on gender. This demonstrates that there was no statistically significant difference in the mean values between the two groups. Boys and girls who valued the classroom setting and their interactions with classmates performed almost similarly. Although girls outperform boys in terms of feelings of belonging, boys and girls may perceive feelings of belonging or the relationship between them and mathematical achievement differently, as seen by the difference in the degree of correlation between the genders. The literature has extensively established the difference in feelings of belonging between males and females. The results of the current study indicate that girls had significantly greater feelings of belonging to mathematics than boys, which supports this conclusion. It is possible that the outcome was affected by the traditional structure of African civilization. Due to their propensity for interpersonal orientation, women may place a higher value on the overall sentiment of belonging

[48]

. On the other hand, feelings of rejection differed significantly by gender. This meant that more boys than girls felt rejected, implying that boys were exposed to more negative school environments than girls.

The study also showed that male students reported higher mean scores in mathematical accomplishment than female students, indicating that the gender factor was statistically significant. This observation aligns with earlier results that suggested that female students encounter more gender stereotype issues more frequently than their male counterparts do

[17, 26]

. Notably, differences in mindsets and their association with mathematics achievement were observed between female and male students’ mindsets. For male students, malleable mindsets displayed stronger associations with mathematics achievement than for females. Conversely, fixed mindsets more strongly correlated with gender stereotypes among female students. Female students also reported a higher correlation between feelings of belonging and mathematics achievement than did their male counterparts. Furthermore, when gender was integrated with school adjustment, significant gender differences in academic adjustment emerged, but not for social, emotional, and institutional adjustments. This suggests the importance of considering gender-related individual differences, especially concerning academic adjustment, fixed mindsets, and feelings of rejection, warranting further investigation. It is imperative to emphasize the importance of paying attention to individual differences when it comes to interventions aimed at enhancing mathematics achievement among secondary school students.

6. Conclusion

The study concluded that there were no gender differences in any of the variables under study. However, gender differences were observed in some specific domains of some constructs, such as academic adjustment and feelings of rejection, where male participants scored higher than their female counterparts; fixed mindsets and social belonging, where the female participants outshone their male counterparts. More importantly, the model showed that boys outperformed girls in mathematics, indicating significant gender disparities. These results suggest the need for tailored counseling and adaptive skills programs that promote long-term school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, and strong social bonds for both boys and girls to enhance mathematics achievement.

Therefore, the study recommends that teachers and other stakeholders be encouraged to integrate skills related to school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, and social belonging into their lessons to enhance the acquisition of these variables equally among the genders. This can be achieved through clarity of values, focus on value-based actions, openness, and awareness of innate experiences instead of attempting to alter or control students’ thoughts and emotions. These might go a long way in helping both boys and girls shape their academic careers and lives in the future.

Limitations

This study focused on gender differences in school adjustment, academic mindset, and social belonging in relation to mathematics achievement among secondary school students in Kajiado County, Kenya. Therefore, the results may not be generalizable across different cultural, socioeconomic, and educational contexts. Additionally, the correlational method used does not measure causality. The correlational design only captures short-term gender effects, while the long-term gender effects on school adjustment, academic mindset, social belonging, and mathematics achievement remain unexplored. The cross-sectional method used in the data collection may also have failed to show long-term relationships between the study variables; therefore, longitudinal research designs may be used to capture any potential dynamic interactions between gender differences from the time students enter school until they graduate.

Implications

The study’s results offer valuable insights for teachers and school counselors. Therefore, this study recommends that future intervention programs for the enhancement of students’ mathematics achievement should consider the gender differences. For instance, school counselors can use this knowledge to develop tailored interventions that address gender differences by creating a safe and secure learning atmosphere in which both boys and girls feel comfortable taking risks and participating in class. Moreover, school counselors and teachers should help students to set high but realistic expectations. Students with high social norms are considered to be socially adaptive and are more likely to interact with others, manage the intricacies of social expectations, and develop meaningful relationships. The unique challenges faced by female students highlight the need for targeted support from schools and community services during their school adjustment. Students with malleable mindsets are considered adaptive, are more likely to engage and persist in circumstances, and to spend more time on relevant tasks with better outcomes. However, considering the challenging, individualistic, competitive, selective, and exclusionary nature of mathematics, any attempt to intervene and improve achievement must begin with understanding the students’ gender needs in the learning environment.

Abbreviations

BB	Boarding Boys
COED	Co-Educational Day
FOB	Feelings of Belonging
FOR	Feelings of Rejection
GB	Girls Boarding
MAT	Mathematics Achievement Test
SPSS	The Statistics Package for Social Sciences
SACQ	Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire
PSSM	Psychological Sense of School Membership

Author Contributions

Joash Mwandike Kirui: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft

Jotham Dinga: Conceptualization, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Syprine Oyoo: Conceptualization, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Data Availability Statement

The data used for the analysis in this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Kirui, J. M., Dinga, J., Oyoo, S. (2025). Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, 14(5), 164-177. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13

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Kirui, J. M.; Dinga, J.; Oyoo, S. Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students. Psychol. Behav. Sci. 2025, 14(5), 164-177. doi: 10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13

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Kirui JM, Dinga J, Oyoo S. Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students. Psychol Behav Sci. 2025;14(5):164-177. doi: 10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13

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@article{10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13,
  author = {Joash Mwandike Kirui and Jotham Dinga and Syprine Oyoo},
  title = {Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students
},
  journal = {Psychology and Behavioral Sciences},
  volume = {14},
  number = {5},
  pages = {164-177},
  doi = {10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.pbs.20251405.13},
  abstract = {Background: Mathematics is the foundation of all forms of knowledge. Globally, mathematical ability is the cornerstone of innovation and technology. Despite its importance, poor mathematics achievement continues to be a matter of concern among education stakeholders, as students are forced to enroll in courses with uncertain career prospects and values. Objectives: This study, therefore, sought to investigate gender differences in school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, social belonging, and mathematics achievement among Form Three students in Kajiado County, Kenya. Methods: This study used a correlational research design with a targeted population of all Form Three students enrolled in Kajiado County. A three hundred and ninety (390) secondary school students constituted the sample. The purposive sampling technique was used to select ten (10) schools in the County, the stratified sampling technique was used to select schools from various categories, and simple random sampling was used to select 390 students from the ten schools. The instrument used for data collection was modified from the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire (SACQ) (r=0.85), Implicit Theories of Intelligence Scale (r=0.86), and Psychological Sense of School Membership Scale (r=0.85). Additionally, the participants’ academic records provided data on their mathematics achievements. Gender differences were tested using the Independent Samples t-test. Results: The results showed no statistically significant gender disparities in students' school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, or social belonging. However, gender differences were noted in the study variables’ specific domains, with male students reporting higher academic adjustment, malleable mindsets, and feelings of rejection than female students. Conversely, no significant gender differences were noted in the social, emotional, and institutional adjustment dimensions. The study recommends that school authorities organize educational programs to raise awareness of school adjustment, malleable beliefs, and feelings of belonging in both boys and girls. Conclusion: Overall, gender differences play an important role in school adjustment, academic mindset, and social belonging in relation to students’ mathematics outcomes. Therefore, it is important to focus on different genders when applying interventions aimed at enhancing mathematics achievement among secondary school students.
},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY - JOUR
T1 - Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students

AU - Joash Mwandike Kirui
AU - Jotham Dinga
AU - Syprine Oyoo
Y1 - 2025/10/30
PY - 2025
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13
DO - 10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13
T2 - Psychology and Behavioral Sciences
JF - Psychology and Behavioral Sciences
JO - Psychology and Behavioral Sciences
SP - 164
EP - 177
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2328-7845
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13
AB - Background: Mathematics is the foundation of all forms of knowledge. Globally, mathematical ability is the cornerstone of innovation and technology. Despite its importance, poor mathematics achievement continues to be a matter of concern among education stakeholders, as students are forced to enroll in courses with uncertain career prospects and values. Objectives: This study, therefore, sought to investigate gender differences in school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, social belonging, and mathematics achievement among Form Three students in Kajiado County, Kenya. Methods: This study used a correlational research design with a targeted population of all Form Three students enrolled in Kajiado County. A three hundred and ninety (390) secondary school students constituted the sample. The purposive sampling technique was used to select ten (10) schools in the County, the stratified sampling technique was used to select schools from various categories, and simple random sampling was used to select 390 students from the ten schools. The instrument used for data collection was modified from the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire (SACQ) (r=0.85), Implicit Theories of Intelligence Scale (r=0.86), and Psychological Sense of School Membership Scale (r=0.85). Additionally, the participants’ academic records provided data on their mathematics achievements. Gender differences were tested using the Independent Samples t-test. Results: The results showed no statistically significant gender disparities in students' school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, or social belonging. However, gender differences were noted in the study variables’ specific domains, with male students reporting higher academic adjustment, malleable mindsets, and feelings of rejection than female students. Conversely, no significant gender differences were noted in the social, emotional, and institutional adjustment dimensions. The study recommends that school authorities organize educational programs to raise awareness of school adjustment, malleable beliefs, and feelings of belonging in both boys and girls. Conclusion: Overall, gender differences play an important role in school adjustment, academic mindset, and social belonging in relation to students’ mathematics outcomes. Therefore, it is important to focus on different genders when applying interventions aimed at enhancing mathematics achievement among secondary school students.

VL - 14
IS - 5
ER -

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Joash Mwandike Kirui

Department of Educational Psychology, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya

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http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5019-1410
Jotham Dinga

Department of Educational Psychology, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya

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http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1390-3068
Syprine Oyoo

Department of Educational Psychology, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya

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http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6171-4603

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Kirui, J. M., Dinga, J., Oyoo, S. (2025). Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, 14(5), 164-177. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13

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ACS Style

Kirui, J. M.; Dinga, J.; Oyoo, S. Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students. Psychol. Behav. Sci. 2025, 14(5), 164-177. doi: 10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13

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AMA Style

Kirui JM, Dinga J, Oyoo S. Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students. Psychol Behav Sci. 2025;14(5):164-177. doi: 10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13

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@article{10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13,
  author = {Joash Mwandike Kirui and Jotham Dinga and Syprine Oyoo},
  title = {Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students
},
  journal = {Psychology and Behavioral Sciences},
  volume = {14},
  number = {5},
  pages = {164-177},
  doi = {10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.pbs.20251405.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.pbs.20251405.13},
  abstract = {Background: Mathematics is the foundation of all forms of knowledge. Globally, mathematical ability is the cornerstone of innovation and technology. Despite its importance, poor mathematics achievement continues to be a matter of concern among education stakeholders, as students are forced to enroll in courses with uncertain career prospects and values. Objectives: This study, therefore, sought to investigate gender differences in school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, social belonging, and mathematics achievement among Form Three students in Kajiado County, Kenya. Methods: This study used a correlational research design with a targeted population of all Form Three students enrolled in Kajiado County. A three hundred and ninety (390) secondary school students constituted the sample. The purposive sampling technique was used to select ten (10) schools in the County, the stratified sampling technique was used to select schools from various categories, and simple random sampling was used to select 390 students from the ten schools. The instrument used for data collection was modified from the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire (SACQ) (r=0.85), Implicit Theories of Intelligence Scale (r=0.86), and Psychological Sense of School Membership Scale (r=0.85). Additionally, the participants’ academic records provided data on their mathematics achievements. Gender differences were tested using the Independent Samples t-test. Results: The results showed no statistically significant gender disparities in students' school adjustment, academic mindset beliefs, or social belonging. However, gender differences were noted in the study variables’ specific domains, with male students reporting higher academic adjustment, malleable mindsets, and feelings of rejection than female students. Conversely, no significant gender differences were noted in the social, emotional, and institutional adjustment dimensions. The study recommends that school authorities organize educational programs to raise awareness of school adjustment, malleable beliefs, and feelings of belonging in both boys and girls. Conclusion: Overall, gender differences play an important role in school adjustment, academic mindset, and social belonging in relation to students’ mathematics outcomes. Therefore, it is important to focus on different genders when applying interventions aimed at enhancing mathematics achievement among secondary school students.
},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY - JOUR
T1 - Gender Differences in School Adjustment, Academic Mindset, Social Belonging, and Mathematics Achievement Among Kenyan Secondary School Students

VL - 14
IS - 5
ER -

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